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What exactly are stretch marks and can they be treated? Yes, stretch marks can be treated, but, before we get to the methods of treatment, let’s first understand what stretch marks are. Stretch marks, also known as stria atrophica or striae distensae or as it’s known during pregnancy, striae gravidarum, are caused by tearing in the skin and its underlying connective tissue. These marks occur as a result of direct trauma or stretching due to the enlargement of muscle or adipose(fat) tissue. Now, the skin has three different layers. The top layer is known as the epidermis, the middle, elastic layer is called the dermis, and the deepest layer is called the subcutaneous layer. Stretch marks actually occur in the elastic dermis layer. As underlying tissue enlarges due to sudden and drastic weight gain, the dermis is stretched too far too quickly and its connective fibers break, thus, leaving some microscopic bleeding and inflammation that quickly evolve into the dreaded stretch marks. At first, stretch marks appear slightly raised and pink, reddish brown, or dark brown lines that then turn purple or violet. Over time, these lines will lose their color and will turn almost silvery in comparison to your normal skin tone. marks often appear where the body often chooses to store its fat. So, in other words, places like the abdomen, the breasts, the upper arms, thighs, and buttocks are all prime targets for stretch marks. Although, they may look unappealing, stretch marks pose no sort of health risk and treatment is only sought for cosmetic reasons. With that said, what are some of the recommended approaches in preventing stretch marks or getting rid of the ones that you already have? First of all, let’s start with the diet that one should be eating. You need to make sure that your diet is supplying enough vitamins C and E as well as the minerals, zinc and silica. All of these have been known to help form collagen among other things that could help eliminate and prevent stretch marks keep your skin healthy. Another option that is more costly, but more effective, is getting a prescription for a Retin-A cream which is derived from Vitamin A and is applied to the problem areas. It has been shown to reduce the prominence of stretch marks, but pregnant women are strongly advised not to use such creams since the high vitamin A content can greatly affect a developing fetus. Furthermore, science isn’t even quite sure how Retin-A affects breast milk content. Still, the cream is effective when used properly. According to one study, Retin-A cream actually reduced the length of stretch marks by 14% and the width by 8%. In another study, Retin-A contributed to a 20% reduction in stretch mark length. Costlier still is the option of laser therapy. According to the American Society of Dermatological Surgery, a surgeon will use different lasers for different colors of stretch mark. One of the lasers reduces the dark pigmentation of the stretch mark while another stimulates pigmentation with the cells that have already turned a light silvery color. There is even a newer type of laser therapy that stimulates the cells to produce more collagen and help restore the elasticity in the dermis. However, it is unlikely that your health insurance plan will cover such procedures. So, be aware of the price tag. Stretch marks are a part of life that many will have to learn deal with, but there is hope if the embarrassment of showing your skin is too great. Let’s approach treatment in a stair-step fashion. First, begin with the easiest approach by eating more fruits and vegetables and drinking more water. Also, supplement your diet with a good multivitamin. If that is not enough, then look into finding a reputable dermatologist to prescribe you some Retin-A cream. For many, this is enough to restore the much needed confidence to pull out that old, dusty bathing suit once and for all. But, if you want the best results possible and money happens to grow on trees, then look into a good cosmetic surgeon and see what can be offered in the way of laser therapy. penis enlagement pill magna rx manual penis enargement exercise penile enlargment before and after photo penis enargement review penis enlagement video free penile enlargement do pnis enlargement pills work manual pennis enlargement

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Body contact for two minutes doesn’t mean to have sex. It is a natural urge and unless one is fully satisfied, the act remains uncompleted. Unable to provide sexual satisfaction to your partner shows that you are immature about sex. Having discussed the subject with numerous men and women about sex, it has been found that the first image that came to their mind is two people engaged in a hot and passionate contact for a prolonged time. Apart from touching and fondling each other your partner seeks a long time intimacy during the act and for this a perfect penile erection is a must. So if you are not experiencing a prolonged erection during a sexual act become serious about it. You may be suffering from some sexual dysfunction. But thanks to today’s medical science for Levitra a perfect medicine for treating sexual dysfunction effectively. It is a medicine especially formulated for the treatment of defective penile erection. It comes in 2.5mg, 5mg 10mg and 20mg tablets. FDA trails have proved it to be a perfect treatment for erectile dysfunction found in men. Levitra increases the blood flow into the penis. The active substance Verdenafil HCL in Levitra works by stimulating the nerves present in the penis by blocking the PDE-5 enzyme that control the blood flow into the penis. Clinical trails have found that most men have been able to resume their sexual life successfully after its first use. It is generally taken about an hour before sex for it begins to show its power between 30 -60 mins of its intake. A dose a day is enough to give a full and prolonged erection throughout a sexual activity. Remember, Levitra is not an aphrodisiac i.e. a substance to give to give sexual arousal all the time. Though clinical trails have recorded some side affects like headache, constipation and stuffy or runny nose but are found to be tolerated and reversible. However, visiting a doctor is recommended for the perfect dose and its usage. herbal penis enlargement pills vimax penis enlargement forum real penis enlarement penile enlargment system free penis enargement tip penis enlargment surgeries pnis enlargement patch manual penis enargement exercise penis enhancement tip

Women's capacity for orgasm is awesome. They can come over and over again, and still be ready for more! This capacity seems almost limitless. They can experience clitoral orgasms, g-spot orgasms, vaginal orgasms, ejaculatory orgasms, blended orgasms, and not only one but multiples of any of these! They've even been blessed with a body part, the clitoris, whose only purpose is sexual pleasure. This may all seem a bit unfair to men who typically reach a precipice, fall over the edge, roll over and go to sleep! Why is it then that so many women are frustrated rather than satisfied? Why is it that for so many loving couples, the female orgasm remains an elusive dream; one in which she's perhaps become resigned to sex that's pleasurable but not truly satisfying, or even worse, faking it to salvage her partner's ego. If it is really bad perhaps she fakes orgasm just to get the sexual ordeal over with! Or he sadly wonders: What's wrong with me? Why can't I make her come despite stiff fingers and aching tongue? His sexual self-esteem is wounded, and he secretly feels less of a man believing he has failed her. The first step on the path to freeing a woman's orgasm is for both men and women to understand that men do not give women orgasms. Women allow themselves to have orgasms. Despite popular belief, no matter how good a lover you may be, unless your partner can give herself up to the pleasures of her body, she won't have orgasms. This realization alone can open the door to women becoming orgasmic. It takes the pressure to "perform" off of men, and it frees women to take responsibility for their own sexual fulfillment. This is very important. If your woman is blaming you, and you may also be blaming yourself for her not having orgasms, it is quite possible, even likely, that you are both looking in the wrong place to solve the problem. Mind you, an unskilled, selfish, or insensitive male lover can be a real problem, and at the very least is certainly a dull bore. And to say that a woman is responsible for her own sexual fulfillment does not mean you revert to a slam-bam-thank-you-ma'am approach to sex and let her fend for herself. After all, the more skilled and attentive a lover is the more pleasure he himself receives, and although you can't give her an orgasm you certainly can help her to have one, or even lots of them. So even though it's not entirely up to you, there is something you can do to help. The biggest barrier to orgasm for women is mental distraction - thoughts that float into her mind, catching her in her head, and taking her away from what's going on in her body. As soon as she starts thinking, she is out of the moment and will lose touch with her senses and her pleasure. Some of these thoughts may trigger feelings of shame or guilt about experiencing sexual pleasure, for no matter how liberated our attitudes toward sex seem to have become, there yet exists the perception that "good" girls don't! Even today women are divided into categories of "virgin" or "whore". Those who engage lustily in the delights of the body are somehow morally questionable. You can help your delectable partner move beyond these pleasure stifling attitudes by letting her know how much you respect, admire and cherish her fully female sensual self. Tell her often, especially when you're making love, that it thoroughly turns you on to see her let loose the passionate side of her nature. This is not always easy for men to do. They may have internalized an unconscious conditioning that leads them to accept the rather misogynist belief that women can't be good and pure, and also be fantastic lovers. If they believe this, they are placing themselves in a very unfortunate situation. This belief system inevitably leads to the man selecting one woman for a partner, spouse and mother, and a different partner for an affair or mistress. Adultery is about the only option left to a man who holds such a belief system. The resulting deceit and lying force a separation between the couple and the relationship ends soon enough, for example in breaking up or divorce. In this scenario, the man is at fault and the solution does lie with him. Only a change in his beliefs will solve this problem. Sexual abuse is a horror and curse that is unbelievably common in our society. Women that have been sexually abused often have great difficulty in allowing themselves to trust their lover, let go into the sensual moment, and surrender to sexual ecstasy. If your lady is having difficulty experiencing orgasm; if you are a reasonably skilled lover; and if you have communicated to her that you honestly wish her to fully awaken as a sexual partner, then the problem could be some psychological damage from sexual abuse. Ask her about this with the greatest tenderness and caring that you are capable of. Be aware that many women actually blame themselves for their own sexual abuse, so this can be the touchiest of all possible subjects for discussion. If sexual abuse is an issue, it is advisable to encourage her to seek professional counseling or some other form of help. Besides worrying about whether they are "bad" if they really enjoy and want sex "a lot", many women worry about enjoying sex the right way. They worry about how they look, smell and taste. They worry that the cellulite in their upper thighs or the slight bulge of tummy fat may quiver unattractively. They worry about being "clean down there". They worry about how long it takes to reach climax, how much time their man has to spend stroking, licking, and caressing to help them fly over the mountain. All of these thoughts take them out of lovemaking. To help her stay in the pleasures of her body tell her with words and sounds and looks that you adore her, you love to devour her with your tongue, you could keep on touching her forever, it's a delight to you to give her pleasure. And mean it, because if you haven't learned how to enjoy pleasuring your partner, pretty soon you won't have one! Once she's able to relax into the joys of lovemaking and focus on the exquisite sensations her body can feel rather than listening to the demon distractors her mind can conjure up, a woman's path to orgasm is much clearer. With particular loving skills of your own you can assist her to break that path wide open. Most men enjoy having their genitals touched at any time, whether they're sexually aroused or not. This isn't usually the case with women. Think of the vagina as a "potential" opening, a magical door that will happily open wide to receive you, but only after you've called ahead to ensure your welcome. Be certain she's eager for your genital explorations by focusing loving attention on other parts of her body first - lots of kissing, neck nuzzling, tender strokes on back, shoulders and arms, then adoring caresses of her breasts. Only after you sense she's ready, through signs like rapid breathing, flushed skin, hardened nipples or enticing moans should you move to her vagina. Once your hand or mouth is at her sweet honey pot begin to explore it from the outside inward - outer lips, clitoris, inner lips, vaginal canal. Generally women reach orgasm most easily through clitoral stimulation. The clitoris is extremely sensitive to touch of all kinds. Often the head of the clitoris, the pointed tip, is too sensitive for much direct pressure, so focus your attention on the sides. Touch around the clitoris instead of right on it, at least until her level of excitement increases. The skin tissue of your fingers is not nearly as sensitive as the tissue around her clitoris. But the tissue of your mouth and tongue is an almost perfect match in sensitivity. Unless you are more highly skilled in using your fingers, it is a much safer way to start by using your mouth for oral stimulation of the clitoris. Experiment with different pressures, strokes and speeds. Ask her which ones she likes best. A good way to do this is to try two different touches, then ask her if she likes "a" or "b" better. If she's willing, invite her to masturbate for you so you can learn exactly how she likes to be touched. Many women are shy to do this at first but with some gentle encouragement she may really show her wanton self. It can be a great turn-on for both of you. Many men are actually quite frightened by a woman who is fully sexually awakened. They may doubt their own ability as a man to keep up, or to be able to perform adequately. They may fear that if she is too much woman sexually for him, that she may go elsewhere and find what she wants. It may help you to overcome this fear if you remember that you are not responsible for giving your lady sexual satisfaction. She must do that for herself. But if this fear is very strong, you may seek counseling help to deal with it. When you do find a particular stroke or caress that is really driving her wild, keep doing it and keep doing it and keep doing it. Don't change anything about it. Don't go faster, slower, softer, harder, or switch direction. Keep doing exactly the same thing until she lets you know she wants a change either through words or body movement. This holds true whether you're pleasuring her clitorally or vaginally with your fingers or your mouth. Keep going even if your hands or mouth get really tired! It's a good idea to wait until she is very aroused before entering her vagina either with your fingers or your penis. Generally if she's not wet, she's not ready. It's as simple as that. If your lover doesn't have a lot of natural vaginal juices even when she is fully aroused be sure to use a good silicone or water-based lubricant. Nothing can be a quicker turn-off than rough, dry skin rubbing on soft vaginal tissues. Water-based or silicone lubricant is better because oil can clog the sensitive vaginal tissue. The most sensitive part of a woman's vaginal canal is the first inch to two inches. It's here that most of the nerve endings are located, so when you first enter her concentrate most of your attention there. The elusive g-spot can usually be found in this general area, on the top of the vaginal wall, a couple of inches in. Imagine a glass lying on the floor. If you reach your first two fingers into the glass at the top, i.e., toward the ceiling rather than the bottom towards the floor, you should find it. It is difficult to reach the g-spot through intercourse, so you will find it much easier with you fingers than with your penis. There are also some interesting dildos and vibrators with just the right shape to reach the G-spot. Move your index finger or your first two fingers in a "come hither" motion (as if you were asking someone from across the room to come over to where you are) and gently stroke her. When you touch her g-spot you may notice a more bumpy or raised area of skin, but you may not. The best way to know you've found this highly intense love spot is by her reaction. Where you look is not quite as important as when you look. Unless she is excited through and through, perhaps from a clitoral orgasm beforehand, it can be difficult to find the g-spot. Stimulation of the g-spot can produce extraordinarily intense orgasms. As a woman is approaching a g-spot orgasm she may feel she has to urinate. This may immediately cause her to tighten up, stop, and pull back from the edge of bliss. If she can stay relaxed and keep going through that "have-to-pee" sensation it will pass and move on into deep waves of sexual delight. The woman should urinate before intercourse begins, so she can be more confident that the feeling that she has to urinate is a misleading feeling and can be safely ignored. For most women it is difficult to reach a climax through intercourse alone. This is because the sensitive clitoris isn't easily stimulated just by thrusting motions; the g-spot is difficult to reach with even a fully erect penis; and because often the male partner goes over the edge into ejaculatory orgasm before the woman has had enough action to bring her to the heights. If you touch her clitoris before and during intercourse, and if you've pleasured her vaginally by touching the g-spot with your fingers, the chances are much better that she will have a deep vaginal orgasm while your penis is inside her. Learn the strokes that turn her on. Tell her how fabulous it is that she's sensual and sexual. Let her know you adore her body and love to touch and kiss it for hours. Help her forget about trying to make orgasm happen and focus instead on thoroughly enjoying every moment of lovemaking. If you awaken your multi-orgasmic woman you are going to like it! penis enlargment pump penis enlagement tool penis enlagement operation penis enargement before and after penis enhancement fact best penis enlagement surgery penile enlargment tool vimax penis enlargement surgeries penis enhancement tip

For a few men the arrival of middle age brings with it increasing urinary difficulty caused by an enlargement of the prostate gland. Instances of urinary difficulty increase with age so that by the time that most men reach retirement there's a better than 50/50 change they'll be experiencing difficulties and, if they're lucky enough to reach the age of 80, then they'll almost certainly run into difficulty as prostate problems affect about 90% of the male population by this age. While enlargement of the prostate is extremely common it is also a benign condition that is confined to the prostate gland and for many men it will develop very slowly over a period of years. There are a variety of symptoms, almost all associated with problems in passing water, and these can range from the quite mild which are really not too bothersome and which you can certainly live with as just another sign of the ageing process, to more severe symptoms which are sufficiently annoying to warrant treatment. In addition to the common problem of an enlarged prostate, which will affect almost all men at some point, a significant number of men will also develop prostate cancer which, while it starts life in the prostate gland, can eventually spread throughout the body and is an extremely dangerous condition and the second most common form of cancer death in the United States today. An enlarged prostate and prostate cancer are two quite separate conditions and, despite what you may have heard, an enlarged prostate does not cause prostate cancer. The two conditions can however exist side-by-side and one problem with prostate cancer is that the symptoms of an enlarged prostate can mask the presence of a growing cancer. The first step therefore is to call in and see your doctor as soon as you start to experience any sort of problems passing water and get him to establish the root of the problem. If you consult your doctor at the first sign of trouble and he diagnoses prostate cancer then it is very likely to be at early stage of development and confined to the prostate gland, in which case your doctor will almost certainly suggest prostate surgery. In this particular case, unless there is a very good reason why you should not have surgery (such as the presence of other medical conditions that you place you at risk from surgery) then the answer to whether or not you should have prostate surgery is invariably going to be "yes". There can be no question that the best way to deal with cancer is to remove it altogether and, when it is confined to the prostate gland, the easiest and best way to do that is to have it surgically removed. If, however, your doctor diagnoses nothing more than an enlarged prostate the question of whether or not you should have surgery become a bit more complicated and you will need to discuss your options with your doctor. There are a range of treatments available for an enlarged prostate including drug therapy and non-surgical treatments, as well as several different surgical treatments and each has its own advantages, disadvantage and risks. The major difference in the case of an enlarged prostate is that the vast majority of treatments are not designed to cure the problem but are aimed at reducing symptoms so that it does not unduly interfere with your quality of life. The question of whether or not you should have prostate surgery is very much dependent upon the cause of your problems. If you have prostate cancer and prostate surgery is the recommended option then, unless there is a good reason for deciding otherwise, you should almost certainly accept your doctor's recommendation. If, however, prostate surgery is being considered for an enlarged prostate, then there will be a range of other options open to you and you will need to make a very personal decision, in consultation with your doctor, about whether or not prostate surgery is the choice you feel would be most appropriate. vimax safe penis enlargement penis enlarement review penile enlargement surgery picture free penis elargement technique free pennis enlargement penile enlargment supplement easy enargement free penis surgery way penis enlarement tool penis enhancement tip

The Prostate: Part I – BNP What is situated below a body of water, has four zones and is commonly associated with venial pleasures. No it is not some romantic European city, but rather a walnut sized male organ that serves important procreative functions. It also happens to be an organ that plagues men as we age. This organ or gland is the prostate. This is the first of two articles on the male prostate. This article will focus on a disease process that affects older men, something we refer to as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). BPH is a non-cancerous growth in the size of the prostate gland that impairs the flow of urine out of the bladder. The second article will focus of prostate cancer. But first a little about the small yet important male organ. The gland is located just below the bladder. It usually measures one inch by one-and-a-half inches (approximately the size of a walnut). It surrounds the urethra (the tube that takes urine out of the bladder). It is responsible for producing a fluid important in male sexual function. In the past the prostate was described as having “lobes”, but today we refer to it as having concentric zones. These zones are important both on an anatomical as well as histological level. We can separate pathology along these zones as well. For instance most all cancers occur in the peripheral zone while the benign process of enlargement occurs almost exclusively in the transitional zone (which only occupies about 5% of the total prostate volume). The prostate gland is also made up of different cell types. Cancer cells develop from the epithelial cells, but it is the interaction with stromal cells that is important in the behavior of the cancer. BPH develops from an interaction between these cells as well, but it is complex and poorly understood. Testosterone and other hormones and their interactions with this gland are hot topics of research in understanding prostate disease. The prostate gland produces most of what is found in the male ejaculate. The average volume is about 3 mL. This is less than a teaspoon and only 1% of it is sperm. The majority of the semen volume is made of products of the seminal vesicles and the prostate. The male ejaculate is very rich in potassium, zinc, citric acid and fructose. Along with these substances it also contains prostaglandins. There are many other unusual substances found in the semen. Not all is know about their function or purpose. This important male organ is a complex mix of anatomical structures and cell types that make it possible for human reproduction. However beyond the reproductive years of men, this organ becomes one of burden rather than usefulness. We will discuss the finer points of BPH and how to best avoid it and if plagued with it, treatment options. BPH typically affects men from their fourth to fifth decade of life and beyond. Several hormones come into play that have a drastic effect on the transitional zone (the zone that is most central and surrounding the urethra). Namely a metabolite of the male androgen Testosterone called Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) plays a big part on the enlargement of cells of the prostate and the encroachment on the urethra. There are several signs and symptoms that correlate with BPH and they are: slow urinary flow, the urge to urinate all the time, nighttime urination, enlargement and distension of the bladder with continuous urine leakage (incontinence) and urinary obstruction. Autopsies suggest that more than 90% of men older than 70 years have BPH. The average age for symptomatic development is about 65 years for white Americans and about 60 years for African-American men. Ways to prevent the effects of DHT on the prostate gland and the ensuing enlargement are via medications that block the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase, which converts Testosterone to DHT. Proscar is such a drug commercially available through a pharmaceutical company. Proscar works on blocking the effects of androgens on the epithelial cells and can actually shrink the size of the prostate making some of the symptoms of BPH resolve. Alternatively two FDA approved drugs that aid in symptoms of BPH (but act differently than Proscar) are Hytrin and Cardura. Both Hytrin and Cardura are drugs in the alpha1-blocker class. Originally researched as a centrally acting blood pressure reducer for patient with hypertension, it was discovered that this drug would actually relax the prostate tissue surrounding the urethra making symptoms of BPH resolve. Side effects generally include low blood pressure, dizziness, and nasal stuffiness. While neither of these two drugs will “cure” or reverse the process, they certainly do provide symptom relief for the patient plagued with BPH. Another way to treat this disease and a more natural approach is the use of herbs know for their anti-androgenic effects on the prostate. These include the well-studied Saw Palmetto herbal extract that blocks 5-alpha-reductase in the same manner as the prescription drug. Saw Palmetto taken in a standardized dose of 160mg twice daily has shown increased urine flow, with minimal side effects. Saw Palmetto is an herb indigenous to the Lowcountry of Georgia and South Carolina. Pygeum Africanum is shown to do the same yet it is not as effective and there is a fair degree of stomach symptoms. Pygeum is derived from an African evergreen tree. Stinging Nettles (Radix urticae) is another herb used widely in Europe for prostate health that has been shown to lower the residual urine volume in men with enlarged prostates. These phytotherapeutics (plant derived medicines), used and described by the Egyptians as far back as the 15 Century B.C., have a common compounds called phytosterols. The most effective phytosterol is beta sito sterol for BPH. None of the medications or herbs has been shown to prevent prostate cancer. These prescription medications and herbs are for the treatment, reduction in size or prevention of the benign process of enlargement of the prostate. Prostate cancer prevention and treatment is by other means and the subject of the next article. Besides the herbal and drug therapies there are a few surgical therapies worth mentioning. These include the most common transurethral resection of the prostate or TURP. This is where under the care of an urologist the constricted urethra within the prostate gland is “reamed out” thus mechanically or surgically widened the opening. A variant of this is the transurethral incision of the prostate (TUIP) where an incision rather than resection of the tissue is performed. A suitable procedure for patients with prostates 100 mL in volume. This involves an abdominal operation and removal of the whole prostate. Of course symptoms mentioned above for TURP are of greater frequency with this more radical procedure. There is also thermotherapy (a type of microwave treatment) that alleviates irritative symptoms, but not much is available in long-term results in the medical literature. And finally stent placement is an option. This can be used in selected cases of patients with a poor general condition and in the non-operative candidate. Symptoms of BPH include: Obstructive symptoms: Hesitancy in initiating voiding (trouble getting started) Weak urinary stream, prolonged voiding Post-voiding dribbling (mild incontinence) Sensation of incomplete emptying Nocturia (night time urination) Overflow incontinence Acute urinary retention (very painful condition) Irritative symptoms: Dysuria (discomfort in urination) Frequency Urgency Scoring BPH: The American Urological Association Symptom Index (AUASI) and International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) are now considered the gold standard measurement tools for the assessment of BPH symptoms and response to treatment. Both questionnaires can be used by a physician in a clinical practice to quantify the subjective symptoms of BPH and monitor therapies. Part II in this series will cover annual examination of the prostate, blood testing, prostate cancer. It will also cover prevention and treatment of prostate cancer. Reference: http://www.prostatehealth.com Lowe, FC. Et al, Phytotherapy in treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia: a critical review. Urology 48:12-19, 1996 Dreikorn, K. et al, Stellenwert von Phytotherapeutica dei der Behandulng der benighnen Prostatahyperplasia. Urologe (A)34:119-129, 1995 Fitzpatrick, J.M. et al, Phytotherapeutic Agents in Management of Symptomatic Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. Urological Clinics of North America. 22:407-412, 1995 Wilt T, Ishani A, Mac Donald R.. Serenoa repens for benign prostatic hyperplasia. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD001423. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001423. [Research by Sagalowski and Wilson, 1998] © 2005